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  • 1 human

    'hju:mən 1. adjective
    (of, natural to, concerning, or belonging to, mankind: human nature; The dog was so clever that he seemed almost human.) menneskelig, menneske-
    2. noun
    (a person: Humans are not as different from animals as we might think.) menneske
    - human being
    - human resources
    individ
    --------
    menneske
    --------
    menneskelig
    --------
    person
    I
    subst. \/ˈhjuːmən\/
    menneske
    II
    adj. \/ˈhjuːmən\/
    1) menneske-, menneskelig, som angår\/kjennetegner mennesker
    2) menneskelig, feilbarlig, i menneskets natur
    to err is human det er menneskelig å feile

    English-Norwegian dictionary > human

  • 2 Synesthesia

        t is because such diverse sensory experiences as a white circle (rather than black), a straight line (rather than crooked), a rising melody (rather than a falling one), a sweet taste (rather than a sour one), a caressing touch (rather than an irritating scratch)-it is because all these diverse experiences can share a common affective meaning that one easily and lawfully translates from one sensory modality into another in synesthesia and metaphor.... In other words, the "common market in meaning" seems to be based firmly in the biological systems of emotional and purposive behavior that all humans share. (Osgood, 1966, pp. 309-310)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Synesthesia

  • 3 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

  • 4 men

    1. люди; мужчины
    2. мужчина; мужской
    Синонимический ряд:
    1. boys (noun) boys; bucks; chaps; cusses; fellows; gentlemen; guys; skates; snaps
    2. humans (noun) beings; bodies; creatures; humans; individuals; lives; mortals; parties; personages; persons; souls
    3. husbands (noun) husbands; lords; misters
    4. lovers (noun) boyfriends; fancy men; lovers; masters; paramours
    5. populace (noun) audience; citizens; following; masses; people; populace; public; society; the community

    English-Russian base dictionary > men

  • 5 Brain

       Among the higher mammals the great development of neocortex occurs.
       In each group of mammals there is a steady increase in the area of the association cortex from the most primitive to the evolutionarily most recent type; there is an increase in the number of neurons and their connections. The degree of consciousness of an organism is some function of neuronal cell number and connectivity, perhaps of neurons of a particular type in association cortex regions. This function is of a threshold type such that there is a significant quantitative break with the emergence of humans. Although the importance of language and the argument that it is genetically specified and unique to humans must be reconsidered in the light of the recent evidence as to the possibility of teaching chimpanzees, if not to speak, then to manipulate symbolic words and phrases, there are a number of unique human features which combine to make the transition not merely quantitative, but also qualitative. In particular these include the social, productive nature of human existence, and the range and extent of the human capacity to communicate. These features have made human history not so much one of biological but of social evolution, of continuous cultural transformation. (Rose, 1976, pp. 180-181)
       [S]ome particular property of higher primate and cetacean brains did not evolve until recently. But what was that property? I can suggest at least four possibilities...: (1) Never before was there a brain so massive; (2) Never before was there a brain with so large a ratio of brain to body mass; (3) Never before was there a brain with certain functional units (large frontal and temporal lobes, for example); (4) Never before was there a brain with so many neural connections or synapses.... Explanations 1, 2 and 4 argue that a quantitative change produced a qualitative change. It does not seem to me that a crisp choice among these four alternatives can be made at the present time, and I suspect that the truth will actually embrace most or all of these possibilities. (Sagan, 1978, pp. 107-109)
       The crucial change in the human brain in this million years or so has not been so much the increase in size by a factor of three, but the concentration of that increase in three or four main areas. The visual area has increased considerably, and, compared with the chimpanzee, the actual density of human brain cells is at least 50 percent greater. A second increase has taken place in the area of manipulation of the hand, which is natural since we are much more hand-driven animals than monkeys and apes. Another main increase has taken place in the temporal lobe, in which visual memory, integration, and speech all lie fairly close together. And the fourth great increase has taken place in the frontal lobes. Their function is extremely difficult to understand... ; but it is clear that they're largely responsible for the ability to initiate a task, to be attentive while it is being done, and to persevere with it. (Bronowski, 1978, pp. 23-24)
       The human brain works however it works. Wishing for it to work in some way as a shortcut to justifying some ethical principle undermines both the science and the ethics (for what happens to the principle if the scientific facts turn out to go the other way?). (Pinker, 1994, p. 427)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Brain

  • 6 Knowledge

       It is indeed an opinion strangely prevailing amongst men, that houses, mountains, rivers, and, in a word, all sensible objects, have an existence, natural or real, distinct from their being perceived by the understanding. But, with how great an assurance and acquiescence soever this principle may be entertained in the world, yet whoever shall find in his heart to call it into question may, if I mistake not, perceive it to involve a manifest contradiction. For, what are the forementioned objects but things we perceive by sense? and what do we perceive besides our own ideas or sensations? and is it not plainly repugnant that any one of these, or any combination of them, should exist unperceived? (Berkeley, 1996, Pt. I, No. 4, p. 25)
       It seems to me that the only objects of the abstract sciences or of demonstration are quantity and number, and that all attempts to extend this more perfect species of knowledge beyond these bounds are mere sophistry and illusion. As the component parts of quantity and number are entirely similar, their relations become intricate and involved; and nothing can be more curious, as well as useful, than to trace, by a variety of mediums, their equality or inequality, through their different appearances.
       But as all other ideas are clearly distinct and different from each other, we can never advance farther, by our utmost scrutiny, than to observe this diversity, and, by an obvious reflection, pronounce one thing not to be another. Or if there be any difficulty in these decisions, it proceeds entirely from the undeterminate meaning of words, which is corrected by juster definitions. That the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the squares of the other two sides cannot be known, let the terms be ever so exactly defined, without a train of reasoning and enquiry. But to convince us of this proposition, that where there is no property, there can be no injustice, it is only necessary to define the terms, and explain injustice to be a violation of property. This proposition is, indeed, nothing but a more imperfect definition. It is the same case with all those pretended syllogistical reasonings, which may be found in every other branch of learning, except the sciences of quantity and number; and these may safely, I think, be pronounced the only proper objects of knowledge and demonstration. (Hume, 1975, Sec. 12, Pt. 3, pp. 163-165)
       Our knowledge springs from two fundamental sources of the mind; the first is the capacity of receiving representations (the ability to receive impressions), the second is the power to know an object through these representations (spontaneity in the production of concepts).
       Through the first, an object is given to us; through the second, the object is thought in relation to that representation.... Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of all our knowledge, so that neither concepts without intuition in some way corresponding to them, nor intuition without concepts, can yield knowledge. Both may be either pure or empirical.... Pure intuitions or pure concepts are possible only a priori; empirical intuitions and empirical concepts only a posteriori. If the receptivity of our mind, its power of receiving representations in so far as it is in any way affected, is to be called "sensibility," then the mind's power of producing representations from itself, the spontaneity of knowledge, should be called "understanding." Our nature is so constituted that our intuitions can never be other than sensible; that is, it contains only the mode in which we are affected by objects. The faculty, on the other hand, which enables us to think the object of sensible intuition is the understanding.... Without sensibility, no object would be given to us; without understanding, no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind. It is therefore just as necessary to make our concepts sensible, that is, to add the object to them in intuition, as to make our intuitions intelligible, that is to bring them under concepts. These two powers or capacities cannot exchange their functions. The understanding can intuit nothing, the senses can think nothing. Only through their union can knowledge arise. (Kant, 1933, Sec. 1, Pt. 2, B74-75 [p. 92])
       Metaphysics, as a natural disposition of Reason is real, but it is also, in itself, dialectical and deceptive.... Hence to attempt to draw our principles from it, and in their employment to follow this natural but none the less fallacious illusion can never produce science, but only an empty dialectical art, in which one school may indeed outdo the other, but none can ever attain a justifiable and lasting success. In order that, as a science, it may lay claim not merely to deceptive persuasion, but to insight and conviction, a Critique of Reason must exhibit in a complete system the whole stock of conceptions a priori, arranged according to their different sources-the Sensibility, the understanding, and the Reason; it must present a complete table of these conceptions, together with their analysis and all that can be deduced from them, but more especially the possibility of synthetic knowledge a priori by means of their deduction, the principles of its use, and finally, its boundaries....
       This much is certain: he who has once tried criticism will be sickened for ever of all the dogmatic trash he was compelled to content himself with before, because his Reason, requiring something, could find nothing better for its occupation. Criticism stands to the ordinary school metaphysics exactly in the same relation as chemistry to alchemy, or as astron omy to fortune-telling astrology. I guarantee that no one who has comprehended and thought out the conclusions of criticism, even in these Prolegomena, will ever return to the old sophistical pseudo-science. He will rather look forward with a kind of pleasure to a metaphysics, certainly now within his power, which requires no more preparatory discoveries, and which alone can procure for reason permanent satisfaction. (Kant, 1891, pp. 115-116)
       Knowledge is only real and can only be set forth fully in the form of science, in the form of system. Further, a so-called fundamental proposition or first principle of philosophy, even if it is true, it is yet none the less false, just because and in so far as it is merely a fundamental proposition, merely a first principle. It is for that reason easily refuted. The refutation consists in bringing out its defective character; and it is defective because it is merely the universal, merely a principle, the beginning. If the refutation is complete and thorough, it is derived and developed from the nature of the principle itself, and not accomplished by bringing in from elsewhere other counter-assurances and chance fancies. It would be strictly the development of the principle, and thus the completion of its deficiency, were it not that it misunderstands its own purport by taking account solely of the negative aspect of what it seeks to do, and is not conscious of the positive character of its process and result. The really positive working out of the beginning is at the same time just as much the very reverse: it is a negative attitude towards the principle we start from. Negative, that is to say, in its one-sided form, which consists in being primarily immediate, a mere purpose. It may therefore be regarded as a refutation of what constitutes the basis of the system; but more correctly it should be looked at as a demonstration that the basis or principle of the system is in point of fact merely its beginning. (Hegel, 1910, pp. 21-22)
       Knowledge, action, and evaluation are essentially connected. The primary and pervasive significance of knowledge lies in its guidance of action: knowing is for the sake of doing. And action, obviously, is rooted in evaluation. For a being which did not assign comparative values, deliberate action would be pointless; and for one which did not know, it would be impossible. Conversely, only an active being could have knowledge, and only such a being could assign values to anything beyond his own feelings. A creature which did not enter into the process of reality to alter in some part the future content of it, could apprehend a world only in the sense of intuitive or esthetic contemplation; and such contemplation would not possess the significance of knowledge but only that of enjoying and suffering. (Lewis, 1946, p. 1)
       "Evolutionary epistemology" is a branch of scholarship that applies the evolutionary perspective to an understanding of how knowledge develops. Knowledge always involves getting information. The most primitive way of acquiring it is through the sense of touch: amoebas and other simple organisms know what happens around them only if they can feel it with their "skins." The knowledge such an organism can have is strictly about what is in its immediate vicinity. After a huge jump in evolution, organisms learned to find out what was going on at a distance from them, without having to actually feel the environment. This jump involved the development of sense organs for processing information that was farther away. For a long time, the most important sources of knowledge were the nose, the eyes, and the ears. The next big advance occurred when organisms developed memory. Now information no longer needed to be present at all, and the animal could recall events and outcomes that happened in the past. Each one of these steps in the evolution of knowledge added important survival advantages to the species that was equipped to use it.
       Then, with the appearance in evolution of humans, an entirely new way of acquiring information developed. Up to this point, the processing of information was entirely intrasomatic.... But when speech appeared (and even more powerfully with the invention of writing), information processing became extrasomatic. After that point knowledge did not have to be stored in the genes, or in the memory traces of the brain; it could be passed on from one person to another through words, or it could be written down and stored on a permanent substance like stone, paper, or silicon chips-in any case, outside the fragile and impermanent nervous system. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, pp. 56-57)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Knowledge

  • 7 flesh

    noun, no pl., no indef. art.
    1) Fleisch, das
    2) (of fruit, plant) [Frucht]fleisch, das
    3) (fig.): (body) Fleisch, das (geh.)

    go the way of all flesh — den Weg allen Fleisches gehen (geh.)

    * * *
    [fleʃ]
    1) (the soft substance (muscles etc) that covers the bones of animals.) das Fleisch
    2) (the soft part of fruit: the golden flesh of a peach.) das Fruchtfleisch
    •
    - academic.ru/27984/fleshy">fleshy
    - flesh and blood
    - in the flesh
    * * *
    [fleʃ]
    I. n no pl
    1. (substance) of animals, humans Fleisch nt; of fruit [Frucht]fleisch nt, Fruchtmark nt; ( old: meat) Fleisch nt
    2. ( also fig: fat) Fett nt; (corpulence) [Körper]fülle f, Korpulenz f geh
    to be in \flesh fett sein pej, gut im Futter stehen [o SCHWEIZ beieinander sein] euph fam
    to lose \flesh abnehmen, abspecken fam
    to put on \flesh zunehmen, [Fett] ansetzen fam
    to put \flesh on sth ( fig) argument, idea, plan etw dat mehr Substanz [o Form] geben
    ▪ the \flesh der [menschliche] Körper [o geh Leib]
    all \flesh die gesamte Menschheit
    one \flesh ( fig) ein Leib und eine Seele
    4. REL (fig, usu pej: human nature)
    ▪ the \flesh das Fleisch geh
    desires of the \flesh fleischliche [o sinnliche] Begierden geh
    pleasures of the \flesh Freuden des Fleisches geh, sinnliche Freuden
    sins of the \flesh fleischliche Sünden meist pej
    5. (fig, also pej: skin) [nacktes] Fleisch, [nackte] Haut
    he stripped down to his bare \flesh er zog sich bis auf die Haut aus
    6.
    ▶ to be [only] \flesh and blood auch [nur] ein Mensch sein
    ▶ more than \flesh and blood can bear [or stand] [einfach] nicht zu ertragen
    ▶ one's own \flesh and blood sein eigen[es] Fleisch und Blut
    ▶ to go the way of all \flesh ( saying) den Weg allen Fleisches gehen prov
    ▶ to have/want one's pound of \flesh seinen vollen Anteil bekommen/wollen
    ▶ in the \flesh (in person) live, in Person; (alive) [quick]lebendig
    ▶ to make one's \flesh crawl [or creep] eine Gänsehaut bekommen
    ▶ to press the \flesh AM POL ( fam) [Wähler]hände schütteln
    ▶ the spirit is willing but the \flesh is weak ( saying) der Geist ist willig, aber das Fleisch ist schwach prov
    ▶ to be a thorn in sb's \flesh jdm ein Dorn im Auge sein
    II. vt
    1. (embody)
    ▪ to \flesh sth etw verkörpern
    2. HUNT
    to \flesh a hawk/hound einen Falken/Jagdhund Wild schmecken lassen fachspr
    to \flesh a hide eine Tierhaut abschaben [o ausfleischen]
    * * *
    [fleʃ]
    n
    1) Fleisch nt; (of fruit) (Frucht)fleisch nt; (of vegetable) Mark nt

    to put on flesh (animals) — zunehmen; (person also) Fleisch auf die Rippen bekommen (inf)

    2) (fig)

    one's own flesh and blood —

    it was more than flesh and blood could bear — das war einfach nicht zu ertragen

    I'm only flesh and blood — ich bin auch nur aus Fleisch und Blut

    in the flesh —

    to put flesh on an idea/a proposal — eine Idee/einen Vorschlag ausgestalten

    3) (REL) Fleisch nt

    sins of the flesh — Sünden pl des Fleisches

    * * *
    flesh [fleʃ]
    A s
    1. Fleisch n:
    lose flesh abmagern, abnehmen;
    put on flesh Fett ansetzen, zunehmen;
    there was a lot of flesh to be seen on the stage auf der Bühne gab es viel nackte Haut zu sehen;
    press the flesh sl Hände schütteln (Politiker etc);
    press the flesh with sb sl jemandem die Hand schütteln; → creep A 3, pound2 1
    2. obs Fleisch n (Nahrungsmittel, Ggs Fisch):
    flesh diet Fleischkost f
    3. Körper m, Leib m, Fleisch n:
    my own flesh and blood mein eigen Fleisch und Blut;
    more than flesh and blood can bear einfach unerträglich;
    a) leibhaftig, höchstpersönlich,
    b) in natura, in Wirklichkeit;
    become one flesh ein Leib und eine Seele werden; → pleasure A 2
    4. obs oder poet
    a) (sündiges) Fleisch
    b) Fleischeslust f
    5. Menschengeschlecht n, menschliche Natur:
    after the flesh BIBEL nach dem Fleisch, nach Menschenart;
    go the way of all flesh den Weg allen Fleisches gehen
    6. (Frucht) Fleisch n
    B v/t
    1. eine Waffe ins Fleisch bohren
    2. a) JAGD einen Jagdhund Fleisch kosten lassen
    b) obs oder poet jemanden kampfgierig oder lüstern machen
    3. obs oder poet jemandes Verlangen befriedigen
    4. eine Tierhaut ausfleischen
    5. meist flesh out einem Roman etc Substanz verleihen, eine Rede etc anreichern ( with mit), eine Romanfigur etc mit Leben erfüllen
    C v/i meist flesh out, flesh up zunehmen, Fett ansetzen
    * * *
    noun, no pl., no indef. art.
    1) Fleisch, das
    2) (of fruit, plant) [Frucht]fleisch, das
    3) (fig.): (body) Fleisch, das (geh.)
    * * *
    (fruit) n.
    Fruchtfleisch n. n.
    Fleisch n.

    English-german dictionary > flesh

  • 8 reason

    1. razón / motivo
    the reason why I'm late is that... la razón por la que llego tarde es que...
    2. razón
    tr['riːzən]
    1 (cause) razón nombre femenino, motivo
    ■ the reason why I'm late is that... la razón por la que llego tarde es que...
    ■ what is the reason for this? ¿a qué se debe esto?
    1 deducir, llegar a la conclusión de que
    1 razonar
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    by reason of en virtud de
    it stands to reason es lógico, es de lógica
    to have reason to believe that... tener razones para creer que...
    to listen to reason atender a razones
    to see reason entrar en razón
    within reason dentro de lo razonable
    reason ['ri:zən] vt
    think: pensar
    reason vi
    : razonar
    I can't reason with her: no puedo razonar con ella
    1) cause, ground: razón f, motivo m
    the reason for his trip: el motivo de su viaje
    for this reason: por esta razón, por lo cual
    the reason why: la razón por la cual, el porqué
    2) sense: razón f
    to lose one's reason: perder los sesos
    to listen to reason: avenirse a razones
    n.
    • causa s.f.
    • entendimiento s.m.
    • fundamento s.m.
    • lugar s.m.
    • motivo s.m.
    • porqué s.m.
    • raciocinio s.m.
    • razón s.f.
    • sensatez s.f.
    • sentido s.m.
    v.
    • discurrir v.
    • raciocinar v.
    • razonar v.
    'riːzṇ
    I
    1) c u ( cause) razón f, motivo m

    for health reasons — por razones or motivos de salud

    for reasons best known to herself — por razones or motivos que sólo ella conoce, vete a saber por qué (fam)

    she has good reason to be upset — tiene razones or motivos para estar disgustada

    reason FOR something — razón or motivo de algo

    I have reason to believe that... — tengo razones or motivos para pensar que...

    2) u ( faculty) razón f
    3) u ( good sense)

    to listen to reason — atender* a razones

    to make somebody see reason — hacer* entrar en razón a alguien

    anything, within reason — cualquier cosa, dentro de lo razonable


    II
    1.

    2.
    vi razonar, discurrir
    Phrasal Verbs:
    ['riːzn]
    1. N
    1) (=motive) razón f, motivo m

    the only reason (that) I went was because I was told to — la única razón por la que or el único motivo por el que fui fue porque me dijeron que lo hiciera

    who would have a reason to want to kill her? — ¿quién podría tener motivos para matarla?

    we have reason to believe that... — frm tenemos motivos para creer que...

    • by reason of — en virtud de

    • the reason for (doing) sth, the reason for my going or my reason for going — la razón por la que or el motivo por el que me marcho

    for no reason — sin motivo, sin razón

    for personal/health reasons — por motivos personales/de salud

    for some reason — por la razón or el motivo que sea

    for this reason — por esta razón, por eso

    • all the more reason why you should not sell it — razón de más para que no lo vendas

    • if he doesn't come I shall want to know the reason why — si no viene tendrá que explicarme por qué

    I see no reason why we shouldn't win — no veo razón por la que or motivo por el que no debiéramos ganar

    • with good reason — con razón

    • without reason — sin razón, sin motivo

    rhyme
    2) (=faculty) razón f

    • to lose one's reason — perder la razón

    3) (=good sense) sentido m común, sensatez f

    • the Age of Reason — la Edad de la Razón

    • beyond (all) reason, I resented his presence beyond all reason — su presencia me molestaba de una forma inexplicable or fuera de toda lógica

    • to listen to reason — atender a razones

    • to see reason — entrar en razón

    • the voice of reason — la voz de la razón

    • within reason — dentro de lo razonable

    appeal, stand 3., 12)
    2.

    I called him, reasoning that I had nothing to lose — me dije que no tenía nada que perder así que lo llamé

    3.
    VI razonar, discurrir
    * * *
    ['riːzṇ]
    I
    1) c u ( cause) razón f, motivo m

    for health reasons — por razones or motivos de salud

    for reasons best known to herself — por razones or motivos que sólo ella conoce, vete a saber por qué (fam)

    she has good reason to be upset — tiene razones or motivos para estar disgustada

    reason FOR something — razón or motivo de algo

    I have reason to believe that... — tengo razones or motivos para pensar que...

    2) u ( faculty) razón f
    3) u ( good sense)

    to listen to reason — atender* a razones

    to make somebody see reason — hacer* entrar en razón a alguien

    anything, within reason — cualquier cosa, dentro de lo razonable


    II
    1.

    2.
    vi razonar, discurrir
    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-spanish dictionary > reason

  • 9 Muybridge, Eadweard

    [br]
    b. 9 April 1830 Kingston upon Thames, England
    d. 8 May 1904 Kingston upon Thames, England
    [br]
    English photographer and pioneer of sequence photography of movement.
    [br]
    He was born Edward Muggeridge, but later changed his name, taking the Saxon spelling of his first name and altering his surname, first to Muygridge and then to Muybridge. He emigrated to America in 1851, working in New York in bookbinding and selling as a commission agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company. Through contact with a New York daguerreotypist, Silas T.Selleck, he acquired an interest in photography that developed after his move to California in 1855. On a visit to England in 1860 he learned the wet-collodion process from a friend, Arthur Brown, and acquired the best photographic equipment available in London before returning to America. In 1867, under his trade pseudonym "Helios", he set out to record the scenery of the Far West with his mobile dark-room, christened "The Flying Studio".
    His reputation as a photographer of the first rank spread, and he was commissioned to record the survey visit of Major-General Henry W.Halleck to Alaska and also to record the territory through which the Central Pacific Railroad was being constructed. Perhaps because of this latter project, he was approached by the President of the Central Pacific, Leland Stanford, to attempt to photograph a horse trotting at speed. There was a long-standing controversy among racing men as to whether a trotting horse had all four hooves off the ground at any point; Stanford felt that it did, and hoped than an "instantaneous" photograph would settle the matter once and for all. In May 1872 Muybridge photographed the horse "Occident", but without any great success because the current wet-collodion process normally required many seconds, even in a good light, for a good result. In April 1873 he managed to produce some better negatives, in which a recognizable silhouette of the horse showed all four feet above the ground at the same time.
    Soon after, Muybridge left his young wife, Flora, in San Francisco to go with the army sent to put down the revolt of the Modoc Indians. While he was busy photographing the scenery and the combatants, his wife had an affair with a Major Harry Larkyns. On his return, finding his wife pregnant, he had several confrontations with Larkyns, which culminated in his shooting him dead. At his trial for murder, in February 1875, Muybridge was acquitted by the jury on the grounds of justifiable homicide; he left soon after on a long trip to South America.
    He again took up his photographic work when he returned to North America and Stanford asked him to take up the action-photography project once more. Using a new shutter design he had developed while on his trip south, and which would operate in as little as 1/1,000 of a second, he obtained more detailed pictures of "Occident" in July 1877. He then devised a new scheme, which Stanford sponsored at his farm at Palo Alto. A 50 ft (15 m) long shed was constructed, containing twelve cameras side by side, and a white background marked off with vertical, numbered lines was set up. Each camera was fitted with Muybridge's highspeed shutter, which was released by an electromagnetic catch. Thin threads stretched across the track were broken by the horse as it moved along, closing spring electrical contacts which released each shutter in turn. Thus, in about half a second, twelve photographs were obtained that showed all the phases of the movement.
    Although the pictures were still little more than silhouettes, they were very sharp, and sequences published in scientific and photographic journals throughout the world excited considerable attention. By replacing the threads with an electrical commutator device, which allowed the release of the shutters at precise intervals, Muybridge was able to take series of actions by other animals and humans. From 1880 he lectured in America and Europe, projecting his results in motion on the screen with his Zoopraxiscope projector. In August 1883 he received a grant of $40,000 from the University of Pennsylvania to carry on his work there. Using the vastly improved gelatine dry-plate process and new, improved multiple-camera apparatus, during 1884 and 1885 he produced over 100,000 photographs, of which 20,000 were reproduced in Animal Locomotion in 1887. The subjects were animals of all kinds, and human figures, mostly nude, in a wide range of activities. The quality of the photographs was extremely good, and the publication attracted considerable attention and praise.
    Muybridge returned to England in 1894; his last publications were Animals in Motion (1899) and The Human Figure in Motion (1901). His influence on the world of art was enormous, over-turning the conventional representations of action hitherto used by artists. His work in pioneering the use of sequence photography led to the science of chronophotography developed by Marey and others, and stimulated many inventors, notably Thomas Edison to work which led to the introduction of cinematography in the 1890s.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1887, Animal Locomotion, Philadelphia.
    1893, Descriptive Zoopraxography, Pennsylvania. 1899, Animals in Motion, London.
    Further Reading
    1973, Eadweard Muybridge: The Stanford Years, Stanford.
    G.Hendricks, 1975, Muybridge: The Father of the Motion Picture, New York. R.Haas, 1976, Muybridge: Man in Motion, California.
    BC

    Biographical history of technology > Muybridge, Eadweard

  • 10 stampede

    I [stæm'piːd]
    1) (rush) (of animals) fuga f. disordinata; (of humans) fuga f. disordinata, fuggi fuggi m.
    2) (rodeo) rodeo m.
    II 1. [stæm'piːd]
    1) fare fuggire, mettere in fuga [animals, spectators]; seminare il panico tra [ crowd]
    2) fig. (force sb.'s hand)

    to stampede sb. into doing — costringere (con la forza) qcn. a fare

    2.
    verbo intransitivo [ animals] scappare disordinatamente; [people, crowd] darsi a una fuga precipitosa
    * * *
    [stæm'pi:d] 1. noun
    (a sudden wild rush of wild animals etc: a stampede of buffaloes; The school bell rang for lunch and there was a stampede for the door.) fuga
    2. verb
    (to (cause to) rush in a stampede: The noise stampeded the elephants / made the elephants stampede.) fuggire
    * * *
    stampede /stæmˈpi:d/
    n.
    1 fuga precipitosa (spec. d'animali spaventati); fuggifuggi; serra serra
    2 (fig.) assalto, corsa (fig.): a stampede to buy up foodstuffs, una corsa all'accaparramento di generi alimentari
    3 ( USA e Canada) rodeo.
    (to) stampede /stæmˈpi:d/
    A v. i.
    darsi a fuga precipitosa; fuggire in disordine; correr via tumultuosamente
    B v. t.
    1 mettere (o volgere) in fuga precipitosa; far fuggire in disordine
    2 (fig.) atterrire; spaventare
    ● to stampede sb. into doing st., far fare qc. a q. spaventandolo.
    * * *
    I [stæm'piːd]
    1) (rush) (of animals) fuga f. disordinata; (of humans) fuga f. disordinata, fuggi fuggi m.
    2) (rodeo) rodeo m.
    II 1. [stæm'piːd]
    1) fare fuggire, mettere in fuga [animals, spectators]; seminare il panico tra [ crowd]
    2) fig. (force sb.'s hand)

    to stampede sb. into doing — costringere (con la forza) qcn. a fare

    2.
    verbo intransitivo [ animals] scappare disordinatamente; [people, crowd] darsi a una fuga precipitosa

    English-Italian dictionary > stampede

  • 11 trap

    I [træp]
    1) venat. (snare) trappola f. (anche fig.)

    to set a trap for — tendere una trappola a [ animals]; tendere una trappola o un tranello a [ humans]

    to fall into the trap — fig. cadere nella trappola

    2) (vehicle) calesse m.
    3) pop. (mouth)
    II [træp]
    verbo transitivo (forma in -ing ecc. - pp-)
    1) venat. prendere in trappola, intrappolare [ animal]
    2) (catch, immobilize) bloccare, incastrare [person, finger]
    3) (prevent from escaping) non disperdere, trattenere [ heat]
    4) fig. (emprison) intrappolare, incastrare

    to trap sb. into doing — costringere qcn. a fare

    * * *
    [træp] 1. noun
    1) (a device for catching animals: He set a trap to catch the bear; a mousetrap.) trappola
    2) (a plan or trick for taking a person by surprise: She led him into a trap; He fell straight into the trap.) trappola
    2. verb
    (to catch in a trap or by a trick: He lives by trapping animals and selling their fur; She trapped him into admitting that he liked her.) mettere in trappola, intrappolare
    - trap-door
    * * *
    trap (1) /træp/
    n.
    1 trappola: a mouse trap, una trappola per topi; The fox was caught in the trap, la volpe rimase presa nella trappola; to lay a trap, tendere una trappola; to set a trap, preparare (o tendere) una trappola: The police set a trap to catch the blackmailer, la polizia tese una trappola al ricattatore
    2 ( di fogna, ecc.) chiusino; pozzetto; sifone intercettatore
    3 (fig.) inganno; tranello; trappola, insidia: Their proposal proved a trap, la loro proposta si è rivelata un tranello; ( calcio, ecc.) the offside trap, la trappola del fuorigioco; to fall into a trap, cadere in trappola (o in un tranello)
    5 ( calcio, ecc.) arresto, aggancio, stoppata ( della palla): chest trap, arresto di petto
    6 ( golf) (spec. USA) (= sand trap) avvallamento
    8 ( sport) – the trap, il piattello ( lo sport)
    10 ( slang) bocca; becco (fam.): Shut your trap!, chiudi il becco!
    ● (teatr.) trap cellar, spazio sotto il palcoscenico □ trap-door, sette (fig.), strappo a «L» ( in un vestito); ► trapdoor □ trap shoot, gara di tiro al piattello □ ( sport) trap-shooting, tiro al piattello □ (fig.) death trap, trappola mortale; pericolo pubblico; edificio pericoloso □ fly-trap, acchiappamosche; (bot., Dionaea muscipula) dionea.
    trap (2) /træp/
    n. [u] (geol.)
    ♦ (to) trap (1) /træp/
    A v. t.
    1 prendere in trappola; intrappolare; accalappiare; ingannare; raggirare
    4 trattenere, bloccare ( un fluido, un gas, un cattivo odore)
    5 (tecn.) catturare: to trap the sunlight, catturare la luce del sole
    7 ( baseball) sorprendere (un ‘corridore’) fuori base
    10 ( calcio, ecc.) arrestare, mettere giù, catturare, domare, addomesticare, agganciare, stoppare, controllare, arpionare ( la palla)
    B v. i.
    ● ( calcio, ecc.) to trap the ball, ( anche) agganciare, controllare, stoppare, mettere giù (la palla) □ to be trapped, essere in trappola ( anche fig.); non avere scelta, essere costretto (a fare qc., ecc.); rimanere bloccato: (autom.) to be trapped in one's car all night, rimanere bloccato ( dalla neve, ecc.) tutta la notte nella propria auto □ to feel trapped, sentirsi in trappola.
    (to) trap (2) /træp/
    v. t.
    2 adornare; ornare.
    * * *
    I [træp]
    1) venat. (snare) trappola f. (anche fig.)

    to set a trap for — tendere una trappola a [ animals]; tendere una trappola o un tranello a [ humans]

    to fall into the trap — fig. cadere nella trappola

    2) (vehicle) calesse m.
    3) pop. (mouth)
    II [træp]
    verbo transitivo (forma in -ing ecc. - pp-)
    1) venat. prendere in trappola, intrappolare [ animal]
    2) (catch, immobilize) bloccare, incastrare [person, finger]
    3) (prevent from escaping) non disperdere, trattenere [ heat]
    4) fig. (emprison) intrappolare, incastrare

    to trap sb. into doing — costringere qcn. a fare

    English-Italian dictionary > trap

  • 12 Language

       Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)
       It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)
       It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)
       Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)
       It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)
       [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]
       Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it
       Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another
       LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)
       We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)
       We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.
       The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)
       9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language
       The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)
       It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)
       In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)
       In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)
       [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)
       he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.
       The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)
       The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.
       But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)
       The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)
        t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)
       A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)
       Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)
       It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)
       First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....
       Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)
       If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)
        23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction
       Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)
       By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)
       Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

  • 13 flesh

    [fleʃ] n
    1) ( substance) of animals, humans Fleisch nt; of fruit [Frucht]fleisch nt, Fruchtmark nt; (old: meat) Fleisch nt;
    2) (a. fig: fat) Fett nt; ( corpulence) [Körper]fülle f, Korpulenz f ( geh)
    to be in \flesh fett sein ( pej), gut im Futter stehen ( euph) ( fam)
    to lose \flesh abnehmen, abspecken ( fam)
    to put on \flesh zunehmen, [Fett] ansetzen ( fam)
    to put \flesh on sth ( fig) argument, idea, plan etw dat mehr Substanz [o Form] geben;
    3) (fig: human body)
    the \flesh der [menschliche] Körper [o ( geh) Leib];
    all \flesh die gesamte Menschheit;
    one \flesh ( fig) ein Leib und eine Seele
    4) rel;
    (fig, usu pej: human nature)
    the \flesh das Fleisch ( geh)
    desires of the \flesh fleischliche [o sinnliche] Begierden ( geh)
    pleasures of the \flesh Freuden fpl des Fleisches ( geh), sinnliche Freuden;
    sins of the \flesh fleischliche Sünden ( meist pej)
    5) (fig, a. pej: skin) [nacktes] Fleisch, [nackte] Haut;
    he stripped down to his bare \flesh er zog sich bis auf die Haut aus
    PHRASES:
    to be [only] \flesh and blood auch [nur] ein Mensch sein;
    more than \flesh and blood can bear [or stand] [einfach] nicht zu ertragen;
    one's own \flesh and blood sein eigen[es] Fleisch und Blut;
    to have/want one's pound of \flesh seinen vollen Anteil bekommen/wollen;
    the spirit is willing but the \flesh is weak (is willing but the \flesh is weak) der Geist ist willig, aber das Fleisch ist schwach ( prov)
    to be a thorn in sb's \flesh jdm ein Dorn im Auge sein;
    to go the way of all \flesh (of all \flesh) den Weg allen Fleisches gehen ( prov)
    to make one's \flesh crawl [or creep] eine Gänsehaut bekommen;
    to press the \flesh (Am) pol ( fam) [Wähler]hände schütteln;
    in the \flesh in person live, in Person; alive [quick]lebendig vt
    1) ( embody)
    to \flesh sth etw verkörpern
    2) hunt
    to \flesh a hawk/ hound einen Falken/Jagdhund Wild schmecken lassen fachspr;
    to \flesh a hide eine Tierhaut abschaben [o ausfleischen]

    English-German students dictionary > flesh

  • 14 Time

       In appropriating time for themselves, and abstracting it into a stark mathematical parameter, physicists have robbed it of much of its original, human, content. The physicist will usually say, "Ours is the real time-and all that there really is. The richness of human psychological time derives entirely from subjective factors and is unrelated to the intrinsic qualities of real, physical time"-and then go about his or her work and daily life immersed in the complexities of human time like everyone else.
       Should we simply shrug the human experience of time aside as a matter solely for psychologists? Does the time of an altered state of conciousness have no relevance at all to the time of Newton or Einstein? Does our impression of the flow of time, or the division of time into past, present and future, tell us nothing at all about how time is as opposed to how it merely appears to us muddle-headed humans?
       As a physicist, I am well aware how much intuition can lead us astray. As I remarked earlier, intuition suggests that the sun moves around the earth. Yet, as a human being, I find it impossible to relinquish the sensation of a flowing time and a moving present moment. It is something so basic to my experience of the world that I am repelled by the claim that it is only an illusion or misperception. It seems to me there is an aspect of time of great significance that we have so far overlooked in our description of the physical universe. (Davies, 1995, p. 275)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Time

  • 15 mortality

    сущ.
    1) общ. смертность (подверженность смерти, в противоположность бессмертию)

    This sequence of events has caused me to be shocked by the mortality of humans and the insignificance of my own life. — Такой ход событий вызвал у меня шок от осознания смертности людей и незначительности моей собственной жизни.

    2)
    а) демогр., стат. смертность (частота смертей; характеризуется количеством умерших по всем причинам или по определенной причине на определенную долю населения в целом или на определенное количество лиц из определенной возрастной, половой или выделенной по иному признаку группы населения)
    See:
    б) с.-х. смертность, падеж (скота, птицы)

    Premature birth and increase in mortality of cattle in the region were highlighted. — Были подчеркнуты преждевременные роды и увеличение падежа крупного рогатого скота в регионе.

    See:
    в) общ. выход из строя; выбываемость (напр., оборудования)

    Англо-русский экономический словарь > mortality

  • 16 try

    1. verb
    1) (to attempt or make an effort (to do, get etc): He tried to answer the questions; Let's try and climb that tree!) intentar
    2) (to test; to make an experiment (with) in order to find out whether something will be successful, satisfactory etc: She tried washing her hair with a new shampoo; Try one of these sweets.) probar
    3) (to judge (someone or their case) in a court of law: The prisoners were tried for murder.) juzgar, procesar
    4) (to test the limits of; to strain: You are trying my patience.) poner a prueba

    2. noun
    1) (an attempt or effort: Have a try (at the exam). I'm sure you will pass.) tentativa, intento
    2) (in rugby football, an act of putting the ball on the ground behind the opponents' goal-line: Our team scored three tries.) ensayo
    •
    - trying
    - try on
    - try out
    try1 n intento / tentativa
    after several unsuccessful tries, we gave up después de varios intentos fallidos, nos rendimos
    let me have a try deja que lo intente yo / déjame intentarlo a mí
    try2 vb
    1. intentar / tratar de
    2. procurar
    3. probar
    can I try your fish? ¿puedo probar tu pescado?
    tr[traɪ]
    noun (pl tries)
    1 intento, tentativa
    ■ why don't you give it a try? ¿por qué no lo pruebas?
    2 SMALLSPORT/SMALL (rugby) ensayo
    transitive verb (pt & pp tried, ger trying)
    1 (attempt) intentar
    2 (test, use) probar, poner a prueba, ensayar; (food) probar
    ■ have you ever tried caviar? ¿has probado el caviar alguna vez?
    ■ why don't we try it with the sofa here and the table over there? ¿por qué no lo probamos con el sofá aquí y la mesa allí?
    3 SMALLLAW/SMALL juzgar, procesar
    4 (be a strain on - eyes) cansar; (- patience, person) poner a prueba
    ■ I don't know if I can do it, but I'll try no sé si podré hacerlo, pero lo intentaré
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to try it on with somebody ver hasta dónde puede llegar con alguien
    to try one's hand at something probar algo por primera vez
    to try one's luck probar suerte
    to try out for something SMALLAMERICAN ENGLISH/SMALL hacer una prueba para algo
    try ['traɪ] v, tried ; trying vt
    1) : enjuiciar, juzgar, procesar
    he was tried for murder: fue procesado por homicidio
    2) : probar
    did you try the salad?: ¿probaste la ensalada?
    3) test: tentar, poner a prueba
    to try one's patience: tentarle la paciencia a uno
    4) attempt: tratar (de), intentar
    5) or to try on : probarse (ropa)
    try vi
    : tratar, intentar
    try n, pl tries : intento m, tentativa f
    v.
    • enjuiciar v.
    • ensayar v.
    • esforzarse v.
    • experimentar v.
    • intentar v.
    • probar v.
    • tentar v.
    • tratar de v.
    n.
    • conato s.m.
    • ensayo s.m.
    • prueba s.f.
    • tentativa s.f.
    traɪ
    I
    noun (pl tries)
    1)
    a) c ( attempt) intento m, tentativa f

    it's worth a try — vale la pena intentarlo or hacer la tentativa or hacer la prueba

    that's not the right answer, but it was a good try — ésa no es la respuesta, pero no estabas tan desencaminado

    b) ( trial) (no pl)
    2) c ( in rugby) ensayo m

    II
    1.
    tries, trying, tried transitive verb
    1)
    a) ( attempt) intentar

    to try to + INF — tratar de + inf, intentar + inf

    try to o (colloq) try and concentrate — trata de or intenta concentrarte

    just you try it! — atrévete!, haz la prueba!

    it's trying to rain — (colloq) parece que quiere llover (fam)

    she tried the switch, but nothing happened — le dio al interruptor, pero nada de nada

    2)
    a) ( experiment with) \<\<product/technique/food\>\> probar*

    try some — pruébalo, prueba un poquito

    to try -ING: have you tried frying it? ¿has probado a freírlo?; try looking at the problem from another angle — prueba con un enfoque distinto del problema

    I tried several bookshops before I found a copy — busqué en or recorrí varias librerías antes de encontrar un ejemplar

    3)
    a) ( put to the test) \<\<person/courage\>\> poner* a prueba

    to try one's luck at something — probar* suerte con algo

    b) ( put strain on) \<\<patience\>\> poner* a prueba
    4) ( Law) \<\<person\>\> procesar, juzgar*; \<\<case\>\> ver*

    to try somebody FOR something — juzgar* a alguien por algo


    2.
    vi

    I can't do it: you try — no puedo, prueba or inténtalo tú

    to try one's best o hardest — hacer* todo lo posible

    Phrasal Verbs:
    [traɪ]
    1. N
    1) (=attempt) intento m, tentativa f

    after several tries they gave up — tras varios intentos or varias tentativas, se dieron por vencidos

    nice try Dave, but I know you're lying — no cuela, Dave, sé que estás mintiendo

    • to give sth a try — intentar (hacer) algo

    she's out at the moment - give her a try in half an hour — en este momento ha salido, pero llámela dentro de media hora

    • let me have a try — déjame intentarlo

    • it's worth a try — vale or merece la pena intentarlo

    2) (=trial)

    • to give sth a try — [+ product, food, experience] probar algo

    to give sb a try — darle una oportunidad a algn, poner a algn a prueba

    • these new burgers are worth a try — vale or merece la pena probar estas nuevas hamburguesas

    3) (Rugby) ensayo m
    2. VT
    1) (=attempt) intentar

    to try to do sth — intentar hacer algo, tratar de hacer algo

    • I tried not to think about it — intenté no pensar en ello, traté de no pensar en ello

    try not to cough — procura no toser, procura contener la tos

    • it's trying to rain — tiene ganas como de llover

    2) (=try out, sample) probar

    have you tried these olives? — ¿has probado estas aceitunas?

    have you tried soaking the curtains in vinegar? — ¿has probado a poner las cortinas en remojo con vinagre?

    try turning the key — da vuelta a la llave y a ver qué pasa, prueba a or intenta darle la vuelta a la llave

    you try bringing up four children on your own! — ¡prueba tú a criar cuatro niños solo!

    • I'll try anything once — siempre estoy dispuesto a probarlo todo, al menos una vez

    • we've tried everything but the car still won't start — lo hemos intentado or probado todo, pero el coche todavía no arranca

    hand 1., 10), size I, 1.
    3) (=attempt to work) [+ door handle] tirar de; [+ telephone number] intentar llamar a
    4) (=inquire at)

    have you tried the local music shops? — ¿lo has buscado en las tiendas de música del barrio?

    5) (=put to the test) [+ person, strength, patience] poner a prueba

    why not try him for the job? — ¿por qué no ponerle a prueba en el puesto?

    • to try one's luck — probar suerte

    • to try sth on sb — probar algo con algn

    • they have been sorely tried — liter han sufrido mucho

    6) (Jur)

    to try sb (for sth) — procesar or enjuiciar a algn (por algo)

    3.
    VI

    you're not trying! — ¡no estás poniendo todo tu empeño!

    try again! — ¡vuelve a intentarlo!

    (just) you try! — ¡hazlo y verás!, ¡atrévete (y verás)!

    • to try and do sth * — intentar hacer algo, tratar de hacer algo

    • to try one's (very) best, try one's (very) hardest — poner todo su empeño, hacer todo lo posible

    • it is not for lack or want of trying — no será porque no se ha intentado

    succeed 1., 1)
    4.
    CPD

    try line N — (Rugby) línea f de marca

    * * *
    [traɪ]
    I
    noun (pl tries)
    1)
    a) c ( attempt) intento m, tentativa f

    it's worth a try — vale la pena intentarlo or hacer la tentativa or hacer la prueba

    that's not the right answer, but it was a good try — ésa no es la respuesta, pero no estabas tan desencaminado

    b) ( trial) (no pl)
    2) c ( in rugby) ensayo m

    II
    1.
    tries, trying, tried transitive verb
    1)
    a) ( attempt) intentar

    to try to + INF — tratar de + inf, intentar + inf

    try to o (colloq) try and concentrate — trata de or intenta concentrarte

    just you try it! — atrévete!, haz la prueba!

    it's trying to rain — (colloq) parece que quiere llover (fam)

    she tried the switch, but nothing happened — le dio al interruptor, pero nada de nada

    2)
    a) ( experiment with) \<\<product/technique/food\>\> probar*

    try some — pruébalo, prueba un poquito

    to try -ING: have you tried frying it? ¿has probado a freírlo?; try looking at the problem from another angle — prueba con un enfoque distinto del problema

    I tried several bookshops before I found a copy — busqué en or recorrí varias librerías antes de encontrar un ejemplar

    3)
    a) ( put to the test) \<\<person/courage\>\> poner* a prueba

    to try one's luck at something — probar* suerte con algo

    b) ( put strain on) \<\<patience\>\> poner* a prueba
    4) ( Law) \<\<person\>\> procesar, juzgar*; \<\<case\>\> ver*

    to try somebody FOR something — juzgar* a alguien por algo


    2.
    vi

    I can't do it: you try — no puedo, prueba or inténtalo tú

    to try one's best o hardest — hacer* todo lo posible

    Phrasal Verbs:

    English-spanish dictionary > try

  • 17 people

    1. n народ, нация

    the French people — французский народ, французы

    English-speaking peoples — народы, говорящие на английском языке

    2. n собир. люди
    3. n собир. население, жители

    the people on the spot — местные жители; местные работники

    4. n собир. употр. гл. мн. ч. разг. с во

    well, you of all people! — ну, уж от вас никак не ожидал!

    5. n собир. родные, родственники; родители
    6. n собир. предки
    7. n собир. собир. служащие; слуги; подчинённые
    8. n собир. амер. жарг. кино человек, особа

    hallo, people! — привет!

    film people — кинематографисты, деятели кино

    9. n амер. юр. государство как обвиняющая сторона в уголовном процессе

    outlawed people — люди, стоящие вне закона

    10. n амер. избиратели
    11. n амер. собир. шутл. существа

    the feathered people — птицы, пернатые

    12. v населять; заселять

    a region peopled with primitive tribes — район, населённый первобытными племенами

    13. v расти
    14. v заселяться
    15. v заполнять

    his dreams were peopled with strange terrifying fantasies — его сны были заполнены странными, ужасными образами

    Синонимический ряд:
    1. commonalty (noun) common men; commonage; commonalty; commoners; commune; inhabitants; plebeians; plebes; plebs; populace; population; rank and file; third estate
    2. family (noun) clan; community; family; kinsmen; nation; race; siblings; society; tribe
    3. humanity (noun) folks; human beings; humanity; humankind; humans; mankind; persons
    4. societies (noun) communities; public; societies
    5. inhabit (verb) inhabit; occupy; populate; stock; tenant
    Антонимический ряд:
    government; nobility; ruler

    English-Russian base dictionary > people

  • 18 long

    long [lɒŋ] (compar longer ['lɒŋgə(r)], superl longest ['lɒŋgɪst])
    (a) (in size) long (longue);
    ∎ how long is the pool? quelle est la longueur de la piscine?, la piscine fait combien de long?;
    ∎ the pool's 33 metres long la piscine fait 33 mètres de long;
    ∎ the article is 80 pages long l'article fait 80 pages;
    ∎ is it a long way (away)? est-ce loin (d'ici)?;
    ∎ it's a long way to the beach la plage est loin;
    ∎ she can throw a long way elle lance loin;
    ∎ to take the long way round prendre le chemin le plus long;
    ∎ the best by a long way de loin le meilleur;
    ∎ to get or grow longer (shadows) s'allonger; (hair, beard) pousser;
    ∎ long in the leg aux longues jambes;
    ∎ a long face un visage allongé;
    ∎ figurative to have or pull a long face faire la tête, faire une tête de six pieds de long;
    ∎ why the long face? pourquoi est-ce que tu fais cette tête de six pieds de long?
    (b) (in time → pause, speech, separation) long (longue);
    ∎ how long will the flight be/was the meeting? combien de temps durera le vol/a duré la réunion?;
    ∎ the film is three hours long le film dure trois heures;
    ∎ her five-year-long battle with the authorities sa lutte de cinq années contre les autorités;
    ∎ to have a long memory avoir une bonne mémoire;
    ∎ to have a long talk with sb parler longuement avec qn;
    ∎ to get longer (days, intervals) devenir plus long;
    ∎ they want longer holidays ils veulent des vacances plus longues;
    ∎ she took a long swig of beer elle a bu une grande gorgée de bière;
    ∎ they took a long look at the view ils restèrent longtemps à regarder la vue qui s'offrait à eux;
    ∎ it was a long two months ces deux mois ont été longs;
    ∎ I've had a long day j'ai eu une journée bien remplie;
    ∎ in the long term à long terme;
    ∎ it will take a long time cela prendra longtemps, ce sera long;
    ∎ a long time ago il y a (bien) longtemps;
    ∎ it's a long time since I was (last) in Paris ça fait longtemps que je ne suis pas allé à Paris;
    ∎ I've been wanting to go for a long time ça fait longtemps que j'ai envie d'y aller;
    ∎ I've known her (for) a long time or while je la connais depuis longtemps, cela fait longtemps que je la connais;
    ∎ it was a long haul (journey) le voyage a été long; (task, recovery) c'était un travail de longue haleine;
    ∎ at long last! enfin!
    (c) Grammar (vowel, syllable) long (longue)
    ∎ they're long on copper, they've taken a long position on copper ils ont investi dans le cuivre
    ∎ that serve was long ce service était trop long
    ∎ she's long on good ideas elle n'est pas à court de bonnes idées, ce ne sont pas les bonnes idées qui lui manquent;
    ∎ his speeches are long on rhetoric but short on substance ce n'est pas la rhétorique qui manque dans ses discours, c'est la substance
    2 noun
    (a) Grammar (vowel, syllable) longue f
    (b) Finance (bill) effet m à longue échéance
    ∎ the long and the short of it is that I got fired enfin bref, j'ai été viré;
    ∎ that's the long and the short of it! un point c'est tout!
    (a) (a long time) longtemps;
    ∎ they live longer than humans ils vivent plus longtemps que les êtres humains;
    ∎ he won't keep you long/much longer il ne vous gardera pas longtemps/beaucoup plus longtemps;
    ∎ I haven't been here long ça ne fait pas longtemps que je suis là;
    ∎ they haven't been married long ça ne fait pas longtemps qu'ils sont mariés, ils ne sont pas mariés depuis longtemps;
    ∎ how long will he be/was he in jail? (pendant) combien de temps restera-t-il/est-il resté en prison?;
    ∎ how long has he been in jail? ça fait combien de temps qu'il est en prison?, depuis combien de temps est-il en prison?;
    ∎ how long is it since we last visited them? quand sommes-nous allés les voir pour la dernière fois?;
    ∎ it happened long ago/not long ago cela s'est passé il y a longtemps/il n'y a pas longtemps;
    ∎ as long ago as 1937 déjà en 1937;
    ∎ long before you were born bien avant que tu sois né;
    ∎ not long before/after their divorce peu avant/après leur divorce;
    ∎ the decision had been taken long before la décision avait été prise depuis longtemps;
    ∎ long after or afterwards, when these events were mostly forgotten... bien après, alors que ces évènements étaient presque complètement oubliés...;
    ∎ colleagues long since promoted des collègues promus depuis longtemps;
    ∎ a law which had come into force not long since une loi qui était entrée en vigueur depuis peu;
    ∎ to look at sb/sth long and hard fixer qn/qch longuement;
    ∎ figurative to look at sth long and hard se pencher longuement sur qch;
    ∎ I've thought long and hard about this j'y ai longuement réfléchi;
    ∎ we talked long into the night nous avons parlé jusque tard dans la nuit
    (b) (with "be", "take")
    ∎ will you be long? tu en as pour longtemps?;
    ∎ I won't be long je n'en ai pas pour longtemps;
    ∎ please wait, she won't be long attendez, s'il vous plaît, elle ne va pas tarder;
    ∎ are you going to be much longer? tu en as encore pour longtemps?;
    ∎ how much longer will he be? (when will he be ready?) il en a encore pour longtemps?; (when will he arrive?) dans combien de temps sera-t-il là?;
    ∎ don't be or take too long fais vite;
    ∎ it wasn't long before he realized, it didn't take long for him to realize il n'a pas mis longtemps à s'en rendre compte, il s'en est vite rendu compte;
    ∎ he wasn't long in coming il n'a pas tardé à venir;
    ∎ he took or it took him so long to make up his mind... il a mis si longtemps à se décider..., il lui a fallu tellement de temps pour se décider...;
    ∎ how long does it take to get there? combien de temps faut-il pour y aller?;
    ∎ this won't take long ça va être vite fait;
    ∎ this won't take longer than five minutes ça sera fait en moins de cinq minutes
    (c) (in wishes, toasts)
    ∎ long may our partnership continue! à notre collaboration!;
    ∎ long live the Queen! vive la reine!
    (d) (for a long time) depuis longtemps;
    ∎ it has long been known that... on sait depuis longtemps que...;
    ∎ I have long suspected that he was involved in it cela fait longtemps que je le soupçonne ou je le soupçonne depuis longtemps d'être impliqué là-dedans;
    ∎ the longest-running TV series le feuilleton télévisé qui existe depuis le plus longtemps
    ∎ all day/week long toute la journée/la semaine;
    ∎ all my life long toute ma vie
    ∎ to go long acheter à la hausse, prendre une position longue;
    ∎ to buy long acheter à long terme
    ∎ so long! salut!, à bientôt!□
    ∎ I long for him il me manque énormément;
    ∎ she was longing for a letter from you elle attendait impatiemment que vous lui écriviez;
    ∎ we were longing for a cup of tea nous avions très envie d'une tasse de thé;
    ∎ to long or to be longing to do sth être impatient ou avoir hâte de faire qch;
    ∎ he's longing to go back to Italy il meurt d'envie de retourner en Italie;
    ∎ I was longing to tell her the truth je mourais d'envie de lui dire la vérité;
    ∎ I've been longing to meet you for years cela fait des années que je souhaite faire votre connaissance
    Stock Exchange titres mpl longs, obligations fpl longues
    (a) (during the time that) aussi longtemps que, tant que;
    ∎ as long as he's in power, there will be no hope tant qu'il sera au pouvoir, il n'y aura aucun espoir;
    ∎ I'll never forget that day for as long as I live jamais de ma vie je n'oublierai ce jour
    (b) (providing) à condition que, pourvu que;
    ∎ you can have it as long as you give me it back vous pouvez le prendre à condition que ou pourvu que vous me le rendiez;
    ∎ I'll do it as long as I get paid for it je le ferai à condition d'être payé;
    ∎ you can go out as long as you're back before midnight tu peux sortir à condition de rentrer avant minuit;
    ∎ as long as you're happy du moment que tu es heureux
    ∎ as long as you're going to the post office get me some stamps puisque tu vas à la poste, achète-moi des timbres
    (soon) dans peu de temps, sous peu; (soon afterwards) peu (de temps) après;
    ∎ she'll be back before long elle sera de retour dans peu de temps ou sous peu;
    ∎ before long, everything had returned to normal tout était rapidement rentré dans l'ordre
    longtemps;
    ∎ he's still in charge here, but not for long c'est encore lui qui s'en occupe, mais plus pour longtemps
    ne...plus;
    ∎ not any longer plus maintenant;
    ∎ she no longer loves him elle ne l'aime plus;
    ∎ I can't wait any longer je ne peux pas attendre plus longtemps, je ne peux plus attendre;
    ∎ they used to live there, but not any longer ils habitaient là autrefois, mais plus maintenant
    ►► long black grand café m noir;
    Finance long credit crédit m à long terme;
    long drink long drink m; (non-alcoholic) = grand verre de jus de fruits, de limonade etc;
    Finance long hedge couverture f longue, achat m par couverture;
    Long Island Long Island;
    ∎ on Long Island à Long Island;
    Long Island iced tea = cocktail composé de cinq alcools, de bitter et de Coca-Cola;
    familiar long johns caleçon m long□, caleçons mpl longs□ ;
    Sport long jump saut m en longueur;
    Sport long jumper sauteur(euse) m,f en longueur;
    History the Long March la Longue Marche;
    American long pants pantalon m long;
    the Long Parliament le Long Parlement, = Parlement convoqué par Charles Ier en 1640, renvoyé par Cromwell en 1653 et dissous en 1660;
    long pig chair f humaine;
    Stock Exchange long position position f acheteur ou longue;
    ∎ to take a long position acheter à la hausse, prendre une position longue;
    long shot (competitor, racehorse etc) outsider m; (bet) pari m risqué; Cinema plan m éloigné; figurative entreprise f hasardeuse;
    ∎ it's a bit of a long shot il y a peu de chances pour que cela réussisse;
    ∎ it's a bit of a long shot, but we may be successful c'est une entreprise hasardeuse mais nous réussirons peut-être;
    ∎ I haven't finished, not by a long shot je n'ai pas fini, loin de là;
    Technology long ton tonne f anglaise;
    long trousers pantalon m long;
    University long vacation grandes vacances fpl, vacances fpl d'été;
    long view prévisions fpl à long terme;
    ∎ to take the long view envisager les choses à long terme;
    long vodka = cocktail à base de vodka, de bitter, de sirop de citron vert et de soda ou limonade;
    Radio long wave grandes ondes fpl;
    ∎ on long wave sur les grandes ondes;
    long weekend week-end m prolongé;
    ∎ to take a long weekend prendre un week-end prolongé
    ✾ Play 'Long Day's Journey into Night' O'Neill 'Long Voyage vers la nuit'

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > long

  • 19 Cognitive Science

       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense.... [P]eople and intelligent computers turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       2) Experimental Psychology, Theoretical Linguistics, and Computational Simulation of Cognitive Processes Are All Components of Cognitive Science
       I went away from the Symposium with a strong conviction, more intuitive than rational, that human experimental psychology, theoretical linguistics, and computer simulation of cognitive processes were all pieces of a larger whole, and that the future would see progressive elaboration and coordination of their shared concerns.... I have been working toward a cognitive science for about twenty years beginning before I knew what to call it. (G. A. Miller, 1979, p. 9)
        Cognitive Science studies the nature of cognition in human beings, other animals, and inanimate machines (if such a thing is possible). While computers are helpful within cognitive science, they are not essential to its being. A science of cognition could still be pursued even without these machines.
        Computer Science studies various kinds of problems and the use of computers to solve them, without concern for the means by which we humans might otherwise resolve them. There could be no computer science if there were no machines of this kind, because they are indispensable to its being. Artificial Intelligence is a special branch of computer science that investigates the extent to which the mental powers of human beings can be captured by means of machines.
       There could be cognitive science without artificial intelligence but there could be no artificial intelligence without cognitive science. One final caveat: In the case of an emerging new discipline such as cognitive science there is an almost irresistible temptation to identify the discipline itself (as a field of inquiry) with one of the theories that inspired it (such as the computational conception...). This, however, is a mistake. The field of inquiry (or "domain") stands to specific theories as questions stand to possible answers. The computational conception should properly be viewed as a research program in cognitive science, where "research programs" are answers that continue to attract followers. (Fetzer, 1996, pp. xvi-xvii)
       What is the nature of knowledge and how is this knowledge used? These questions lie at the core of both psychology and artificial intelligence.
       The psychologist who studies "knowledge systems" wants to know how concepts are structured in the human mind, how such concepts develop, and how they are used in understanding and behavior. The artificial intelligence researcher wants to know how to program a computer so that it can understand and interact with the outside world. The two orientations intersect when the psychologist and the computer scientist agree that the best way to approach the problem of building an intelligent machine is to emulate the human conceptual mechanisms that deal with language.... The name "cognitive science" has been used to refer to this convergence of interests in psychology and artificial intelligence....
       This working partnership in "cognitive science" does not mean that psychologists and computer scientists are developing a single comprehensive theory in which people are no different from machines. Psychology and artificial intelligence have many points of difference in methods and goals.... We simply want to work on an important area of overlapping interest, namely a theory of knowledge systems. As it turns out, this overlap is substantial. For both people and machines, each in their own way, there is a serious problem in common of making sense out of what they hear, see, or are told about the world. The conceptual apparatus necessary to perform even a partial feat of understanding is formidable and fascinating. (Schank & Abelson, 1977, pp. 1-2)
       Within the last dozen years a general change in scientific outlook has occurred, consonant with the point of view represented here. One can date the change roughly from 1956: in psychology, by the appearance of Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin's Study of Thinking and George Miller's "The Magical Number Seven"; in linguistics, by Noam Chomsky's "Three Models of Language"; and in computer science, by our own paper on the Logic Theory Machine. (Newell & Simon, 1972, p. 4)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Cognitive Science

  • 20 DDT

    1. устройство передачи цифровых данных
    2. испытание в процессе разработки
    3. ДДТ

     

    ДДТ
    —
    [ http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    EN

    DDT
    A persistent organochlorine insecticide, also known as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, that was introduced in the 1940s and used widely because of its persistence (meaning repeated applications were unnecessary), its low toxicity to mammals and its simplicity and cheapness of manufacture. It became dispersed all over the world and, with other organochlorines, had a disruptive effect on species high in food chains, especially on the breeding success of certain predatory birds. DDT is very stable, relatively insoluble in water, but highly soluble in fats. Health effects on humans are not clear, but it is less toxic than related compounds. It is poisonous to other vertebrates, especially fish, and is stored in the fatty tissue of animals as sublethal amounts of the less toxic DDE. Because of its effects on wildlife its use in most countries is now forbidden or strictly limited. (Source: MGH / ALL)
    [http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/alphabetic?langcode=en]

    Тематики

    EN

    DE

    FR

     

    испытание в процессе разработки
    —
    [Я.Н.Лугинский, М.С.Фези-Жилинская, Ю.С.Кабиров. Англо-русский словарь по электротехнике и электроэнергетике, Москва, 1999 г.]

    Тематики

    • электротехника, основные понятия

    EN

     

    устройство передачи цифровых данных
    —
    [Е.С.Алексеев, А.А.Мячев. Англо-русский толковый словарь по системотехнике ЭВМ. Москва 1993]

    Тематики

    EN

    Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > DDT

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